Aug 16, · Clear instructions with outlines and sample essay forms for writing summary, analysis, and response essays. Clear instructions with outlines and sample essay forms for writing summary, analysis, and response essays. Answer: You are probably referring to a comparative essay when you need to explain the similarities and differences between Jul 30, · How to write a descriptive essay. Published on July 30, by Jack Caulfield. Revised on October 15, A descriptive essay gives a vivid, detailed description of something—generally a place or object, but possibly something more abstract like an emotion. This type of essay, like the narrative essay, is more creative than most academic writing Read our samples of reflective essays to gain a greater understanding of how to write one on your own. Ideal Social Moral Code Upon reflection of the ideal social moral code, within one sentence, it would be: be constructive, not destructive
Comparative method - Wikipedia
In linguisticscomparative analysis essays, the comparative method is a technique for studying the comparative analysis essays of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor and then extrapolating backwards to infer the properties of that ancestor.
The comparative method comparative analysis essays be contrasted with the method of internal reconstruction in which the internal development of a single language is inferred by the analysis of features within that language. The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars Rasmus Rask and Karl Verner and the German scholar Jacob Grimm.
The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a proto-language was August Schleicher comparative analysis essays, in his Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik comparative analysis essays indogermanischen Sprachenoriginally published in In the present work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred Indo-European original language side by side with its really existent derived languages.
Besides the advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, comparative analysis essays, and thereby rendering easier his comparative analysis essays into the nature of particular Indo-European languagesthere is, I think, another comparative analysis essays no less importance gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian Sanskrit.
The aim of the comparative method is to highlight and interpret systematic phonological and semantic correspondences between two or more attested languages.
If those correspondences cannot be rationally explained as the result of language contact borrowingsareal influenceetc. A sequence of regular sound changes along with their underlying sound laws can then be postulated to explain the correspondences between the attested forms, which eventually allows for the reconstruction of a proto-language by the methodical comparison of "linguistic facts" within a generalized system of correspondences. Every linguistic fact is part of a whole in which everything is connected to everything else.
One detail must not be linked to another detail, but one linguistic system to another. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and regular sound correspondences can be established, with chance similarities ruled out.
Descent is defined as transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and, after being influenced by their peers, transmit it to the next generation, and so on. For example, comparative analysis essays continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links Vulgar Latin to all of its modern descendants. Two languages are genetically related if they descended from the same ancestor language.
However, it is possible for languages to have different degrees of relatedness. Englishfor example, comparative analysis essays, is related to both German and Russian but is more closely related to the former than to the latter. Although all three languages share a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-EuropeanEnglish and German also share a more recent common ancestor, Proto-Germanicbut Russian does not.
Therefore, comparative analysis essays, English and German are considered to belong to a different subgroup, the Germanic languages. Shared retentions from the parent language are not sufficient evidence of a sub-group. For example, German and Russian both retain from Proto-Indo-European a contrast between the dative case and the accusative casewhich English has lost.
The division of related languages into sub-groups is accomplished more certainly by finding shared linguistic innovations that differentiate them from the parent language, rather than shared features that are retained from the parent language. In Antiquity, comparative analysis essays, Romans were aware of the similarities between Greek and Latin, but did not study them systematically.
They sometimes explained them mythologically, as the result of Rome being a Greek colony speaking a debased dialect. Even though grammarians of Antiquity had access to other languages around them OscanUmbrianEtruscanGaulishEgyptianParthian Comparison between languages really began after Antiquity.
In the 9th or 10th century AD, Yehuda Ibn Quraysh compared the phonology and morphology of Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic but attributed comparative analysis essays resemblance to the Biblical story of Babel, with Abraham, Isaac and Joseph retaining Adam's language, with other languages at various removes becoming more altered from the original Hebrew. In publications of andcomparative analysis essays, Marcus van Boxhorn first described a rigorous methodology for historical linguistic comparisons [11] and proposed the existence of an Indo-European proto-language, which he called "Scythian", unrelated to Hebrew but ancestral to Germanic, Greek, comparative analysis essays, Romance, Persian, Sanskrit, Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages.
The Scythian theory was further developed by Andreas Jäger and William Wottoncomparative analysis essays, who made early forays to reconstruct the primitive common language, comparative analysis essays.
In andLambert ten Kate first formulated the regularity of sound lawsintroducing among others the term root vowel. Another early systematic attempt to prove the relationship between two languages on the basis of similarity of grammar and lexicon was made by the Hungarian János Sajnovics inwhen he attempted to demonstrate the relationship between Sami and Hungarian.
That work was later extended to all Finno-Ugric languages comparative analysis essays by his countryman Samuel Gyarmathi.
The Sanscrit languagewhatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greekcomparative analysis essays, more copious than the Latinand more exquisitely refined than either, comparative analysis essays, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms comparative analysis essays grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists.
There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtickcomparative analysis essays, though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the old Persian might be added to the same family. The comparative method developed out of attempts to reconstruct the proto-language mentioned by Jones, which he did not name but subsequent linguists have labelled Proto-Indo-European PIE, comparative analysis essays.
The first professional comparison between the Indo-European languages that were then known was made by the German linguist Franz Bopp in He did not attempt a reconstruction but demonstrated that Comparative analysis essays, Latin and Sanskrit shared a common structure and a common lexicon.
Both Rask and Grimm were unable to explain apparent exceptions to the sound laws that they had discovered. Although Hermann Grassmann explained one of the anomalies with the publication of Grassmann's law in[18] Karl Verner made a methodological breakthrough inwhen he identified a pattern now known as Verner's lawthe first sound-law based on comparative evidence showing that a phonological change in one phoneme could depend on other factors within the same word such as neighbouring phonemes and the position of the accent [19]which is now called conditioning environments.
Similar discoveries made by the Junggrammatiker usually translated as " Neogrammarians " at the University of Leipzig in the late 19th century led them to conclude that all sound changes were ultimately regular, resulting in the famous statement by Karl Brugmann and Hermann Osthoff in that "sound laws have no exceptions".
The Neogrammarian hypothesis led to the application of the comparative method to reconstruct Proto-Indo-European since Indo-European was comparative analysis essays by far the most well-studied language family. Linguists working with other families soon followed suit, and the comparative method quickly became the established method for uncovering linguistic relationships.
There is no fixed set of steps to be followed in the application of the comparative method, but some steps are suggested by Lyle Campbell [21] and Terry Crowley[22] who are both authors of introductory texts in historical linguistics. This abbreviated summary is based on their concepts of how to proceed.
This step involves making lists of words that are likely cognates among the languages being compared. If there is a regularly-recurring match between the phonetic structure of basic words with similar meanings, a genetic kinship can probably then be established. Borrowings or false cognates can skew or obscure the correct data. An extreme case is represented by Pirahãa Muran language of South America, which has been controversially [30] claimed to have borrowed all of its pronouns from Nheengatu.
The next step involves determining the regular sound-correspondences exhibited by the lists of potential cognates. For example, in the Polynesian data above, it is apparent that words that contain t in most of the languages listed have comparative analysis essays in Hawaiian with k in the same position.
That is visible in multiple cognate sets: the words glossed as 'one', 'three', 'man' and 'taboo' all show the relationship, comparative analysis essays. The situation is called a "regular correspondence" between k in Hawaiian and t in the other Polynesian languages, comparative analysis essays. Similarly, a regular correspondence can be seen between Hawaiian and Rapanui hcomparative analysis essays, Tongan and Samoan fMaori ɸand Rarotongan ʔ.
Mere phonetic similarity, as between English day and Latin dies both with the same meaninghas no probative value. However, English and Latin exhibit a regular correspondence of t- : d- [34] in which "A : B" means "A corresponds to B"as in the following examples: [36], comparative analysis essays. If there are many regular correspondence sets of this kind the more, the bettera common origin becomes a virtual certainty, particularly if some of the correspondences are non-trivial or unusual.
During the late 18th to late 19th century, two major developments improved the method's effectiveness, comparative analysis essays. First, it was found [ by whom? For example, in both Greek and Sanskritan aspirated stop evolved into an unaspirated one, but only if a second aspirate occurred later in the same word; [37] this is Grassmann's lawfirst described for Sanskrit by Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini [38] and promulgated by Hermann Grassmann in Second, it was found that sometimes sound changes occurred in contexts that were later lost.
Verner's Lawdiscovered by Karl Verner c. Following the change, the accent shifted to initial position. This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two or more sets apply in complementary distributionthey can be assumed to reflect a single original phoneme comparative analysis essays "some sound changes, comparative analysis essays, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set".
For example, the following potential cognate list can be established for Romance languageswhich descend from Latin :. They evidence two correspondence sets, k : k and k : ʃ :. Since French ʃ occurs only before a where the other languages also have aand French k occurs elsewhere, the difference is caused by different environments being before a conditions the changeand the sets are complementary.
If more evidence along those lines were given, one might conclude that an alteration of the original k took place because of a different environment. A more complex case involves consonant clusters in Proto-Algonquian. The Algonquianist Leonard Bloomfield used the reflexes of the clusters in four of the daughter languages to reconstruct the following correspondence sets: [45], comparative analysis essays.
Although all five correspondence sets overlap with one another in various places, they are not in complementary distribution and so Bloomfield recognised that a different cluster must be reconstructed for each set.
Typology assists in deciding what reconstruction best fits comparative analysis essays data. For example, the voicing of voiceless stops between vowels is common, comparative analysis essays, but the devoicing of voiced stops in that environment is rare. The opposite reconstruction would represent a rare type.
However, comparative analysis essays, unusual sound changes occur. It is not comparative analysis essays similarity that matters for the comparative method but rather regular sound correspondences.
By the principle of economythe reconstruction of a proto-phoneme should require comparative analysis essays few sound changes as possible to arrive at the modern reflexes in the daughter languages. For example, Algonquian languages comparative analysis essays the following correspondence set: [49] [50]. That argument assumes the languages other than Arapaho to be at least partly independent of one another. In the final step, the linguist checks to see how the proto- phonemes fit the known typological constraints.
For example, a hypothetical system. However, languages generally maintain symmetry in their phonemic inventories. Even a symmetrical system can be typologically suspicious. For example, here is the traditional Proto-Indo-European stop inventory: [51]. An earlier voiceless aspirated row was removed on grounds of insufficient evidence.
Since the midth century, a number of linguists have argued that this phonology is implausible [52] and that it is extremely unlikely for a language to have a voiced aspirated breathy voice series without a corresponding voiceless aspirated series.
Thomas Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav Comparative analysis essays provided a comparative analysis essays solution and argued that the series that are traditionally reconstructed as plain voiced should be reconstructed as glottalized : either implosive ɓ, comparative analysis essays, ɗ, ɠ or ejective pʼ, tʼ, kʼ.
The plain voiceless and voiced aspirated series would thus be replaced by just voiceless and voiced, with aspiration being a non-distinctive quality of both. It comparative analysis essays a large number of proponents but is not generally accepted. The reconstruction of proto-sounds logically precedes the reconstruction of grammatical morphemes word-forming affixes and inflectional endingscomparative analysis essays, patterns of declension and conjugation and so on.
The full reconstruction of an unrecorded protolanguage is an open-ended task. The limitations of the comparative method were recognized by the very linguists who developed it, [55] but it is still seen as a valuable tool. In the case of Indo-European, the method seemed at least a partial validation of the centuries-old search for an Ursprachethe original language.
The others were presumed to be ordered in a family treewhich was the tree model of the neogrammarians. The archaeologists followed suit and attempted to find archaeological evidence of a culture or cultures that could be presumed to have spoken a proto-languagesuch as Vere Gordon Childe 's The Aryans: a study of Indo-European origins Childe was a philologist turned archaeologist.
Those views culminated in the Siedlungsarchaologieor "settlement-archaeology", of Gustaf Kossinnabecoming known as "Kossinna's Law". Kossinna asserted that cultures represent ethnic groups, comparative analysis essays their languages, but his law was rejected after World War II.
Compare and contrast essay structure
, time: 5:25How to Write a Summary, Analysis, and Response Essay Paper With Examples - Owlcation
Jul 31, · Comparative philosophy brings together philosophical traditions that have developed in relative isolation from one another and that are defined quite broadly along cultural and regional lines – Chinese versus Western, for example. conceptions of human nature exemplify a variability and ambiguity in conceptions of human nature that is a The comparative method may be contrasted with the method of internal reconstruction in which the internal development of a single language is inferred by the analysis of features within that language. Ordinarily, both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages; to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language Read our samples of reflective essays to gain a greater understanding of how to write one on your own. Ideal Social Moral Code Upon reflection of the ideal social moral code, within one sentence, it would be: be constructive, not destructive
No comments:
Post a Comment